Electrical stimulation of nerves is widely applied in the treatment of a range of conditions and may be applied to control muscle activity or to generate sensations. Nerves may be stimulated by surgically implanting electrodes in, around or near the nerves and activating the electrodes by means of an implanted or external source of electricity.
The phrenic nerves normally transmit signals from the brain that cause the contractions of the diaphragm necessary for breathing. However, various conditions can prevent appropriate signals from being delivered to the phrenic nerves. These include:                permanent or temporary injury or disease affecting the spinal cord or brain stem;        Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS);        decreased day or night ventilatory drive (e.g. central sleep apnea, Ondine's curse); and        decreased ventilatory drive while under the influence of anesthetic agents and/or mechanical ventilation.These conditions affect a significant number of people.        
Intubation and positive pressure mechanical ventilation (MV) may be used for periods of several hours or several days, sometimes weeks, to help critically ill patients breathe while in intensive care units (ICU). Some patients may be unable to regain voluntary breathing and thus require prolonged or permanent mechanical ventilation. Although mechanical ventilation can be initially lifesaving, it has a range of significant problems and/or side effects.
Mechanical Ventilation:
                often causes ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) and alveolar damage which can lead to accumulation of fluid in the lungs and increased susceptibility to infection (ventilator-associated pneumonia; VAP);        commonly requires sedation to reduce discomfort and anxiety in acutely intubated patients;        causes rapid atrophy of the disused diaphragm muscle (ventilator-induced diaphragm dysfunction, VIDD);        can adversely affect venous return because the lungs are pressurized and the diaphragm is inactive;        interferes with eating and speaking;        requires apparatus that is not readily portable; and        increases the risk of dying in a hospital if the patient fails to regain normal breathing and becomes ventilator-dependent.        
A patient who is sedated and connected to a mechanical ventilator cannot breathe normally because the central neural drive to the diaphragm and accessory respiratory muscles is suppressed. Inactivity leads to muscle disuse atrophy and an overall decline in well-being. Diaphragm muscle atrophy occurs rapidly and can be a serious problem to the patient. According to a published study of organ donor patients (Levine et al., New England Journal of Medicine, 358: 1327-1335, 2008), after only 18 to 69 hours of mechanical ventilation, all diaphragm muscle fibers had shrunk on average by 52-57%. Muscle fiber atrophy results in muscle weakness and increased fatigability. Therefore, ventilator-induced diaphragm atrophy could cause a patient to become ventilator-dependent. It has been reported that over 840,000 ICU patients in the United States, Europe and Canada become ventilator dependent every year.
It is well known that for certain patients who have permanent respiratory insufficiency due to absent or reduced central drive descending from the brain stem, it is feasible and advantageous to rhythmically activate the diaphragm muscle by electrically stimulating (“pacing”) the phrenic nerves using implanted electrodes. Several methods have been disclosed.
Method 1 uses cuff-like electrodes surgically implanted in the neck or upper chest to directly stimulate the phrenic nerves, such as the Mark IV Breathing Pacemaker System available from Avery Biomedical Devices, Inc. of Commack, N.Y., USA. The electrodes are connected to surgically implanted receivers and mated to external transmitters by antennas worn over the implanted receivers. Implanting electrodes for phrenic nerve pacing requires significant surgery that can be risky and complicated by the fact that phrenic nerves are thin (approximately 2 mm in diameter), delicate, and located amidst major blood vessels deep in the chest. This type of surgery involves significant cost and is typically only indicated for certain patients who would otherwise depend on mechanical ventilation for the rest of their lives.
Method 2 uses implanted intramuscular electrodes to pace the diaphragm, such as the NeuRx Diaphragm Pacing System® marketed by Synapse Biomedical Inc. of Oberlin, Ohio. Surgical anesthesia and laparoscopic surgery are required to map the motor points in the diaphragm muscle and suture several electrodes near the motor points. This type of surgery also involves significant time and cost and is currently only indicated for spinal cord injury (SCI) or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients, who would otherwise depend on mechanical ventilation for the rest of their lives.
In some patients who were paced with either Method 1 or Method 2, it was found that the rhythmic negative-pressure breathing action provided by phrenic nerve pacing contributed to reducing the rate and extent of lung injury and infections, compared to mechanically ventilated patients. Phrenic pacing was also shown by Ayas et al. (1999; “Prevention of human diaphragm atrophy with short periods of electrical stimulation”) to be an effective method for preserving or increasing the strength and the endurance of the diaphragm muscle paralyzed by a SCI. This type of evidence relates to a well-known fundamental physiological effect of electrical activation of muscle nerves, upon which the current disclosure is, in part, based on.
Method 3 relates to a system and method using intravascularly implanted electrodes to stimulate a nerve, developed by Joaquín Andrés Hoffer and described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,571,662 entitled “Transvascular Nerve Stimulation Apparatus and Methods,” which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Critically ill ICU patients are not typically eligible for Methods 1 and 2. For short-term use in ICU patients, Method 3 has unique advantages due to the fact that it does not require invasive surgery that would typically be performed under full anaesthesia. Method 3 rhythmically activates the diaphragm through a temporary, removable, multi-lumen, multi-electrode catheter that is percutaneously inserted into central veins (e.g., left subclavian vein, superior vena cava) of a patient. In critically ill patients who would typically fail to wean and become ventilator-dependent, the pacing therapy described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,571,662 is expected to prevent, mitigate, or reverse diaphragm muscle-disuse atrophy and maintain diaphragmatic endurance, thus facilitating successful weaning of patients from mechanical ventilation.